The B'laan
The B'laans are another pro-Malayan indigenous group found mostly in Davao del Sur and South Cotabato. The B'laans adhere to sedentary form of agriculture and engage in other economic endeavors for their subsistence and development. Although many have adapted the ways of the modern Filipino and have been integrated into the main body politic, they still believe and practice their indigenous rituals and customs.
The B'laans observe certain rituals in their planting cycle. In these rituals, they make offerings to their deities requesting for signs to know where to best make a clearing for a particular planting season.
The B'laans practice swidden agriculture. They grow rice, corn, sugarcane, banana, papaya, and other rootcrops. Some of their crops are used as barter commodities in exchange for tools and other utensils that they need.
The Badjao
The Badjaos are popularly known as the "Sea Gypsies" of the Sulu and Celebes sea. The name Badjao is a Malay-Bornean word which connotes "man of the seas" or Orang Laut in Bahasa Malayo. Their Sama and Tausug neighbors call them by pejorative names such as Samal Palau (outcast Samal). The Badjoas call themselves as Sama Laus(Sea Sama). Many Badjaos live most of their lives in house boats which occasionally cluster at moorings near certain strands and beaches, so as to do business in nearby market places of the land-dwelling Sama and Tausug. In the markets. they barter their sea products for such farm produce as fruits and cassava. o¬n shore, they also fetch drinking water, gather firewood, and look for materials needed in the construction or repair of their houseboats.
The Badjaos or sea gypies inhabit the shores and waters of the Sulu archipelago. These groups of Badjaos may be classified according to lifestyle. The Badjaos inhabiting Siasi Island are semisedentary, building stilt-houses over the water and engaging in fishing. The group in Sitangki builds permanent homes o¬n the shore while the third group lives in houseboats called sakayan. The stilt-houses merely serve as temporary refuge during the time that their boathouses undergo repairs. The other boats are called lipa, vinta, pelang and kumpit. They are found in many of the coastal settlements dotting the Sulu archipelago, particularly in Jolo, Tawi-Tawi and Sitangkai. Others are scattered in Davao, Surigao, Zamboanga, Basilan, Bohol, Cebu and Manila in search of livelihood.
The Badjaos are an oppressed tribe. They are referred to a palao or lumaan (God forsaken) by the Tausugs.
The Badjaos speak of a dialect of Sama language. Their livelihood is totally dependent o¬n the resources of the sea - fishes, seaweeds, shells and so forth, either for food or to sell/barter for other necessities such as clothing, materials for boat construction, matobes, and fishing equipment. They are mostly seen sailing the seas or resting at moorings in lagoons or the beaches and strands of smaller islands or elsewhere along the coast of the Sulu archipelago.
A sea ritual makes the Badjaos childbirth practice somewhat peculiar. The newly born infant is thrown into the sea. Other people dive after it to rescue it. This ritual is simply an initiation into the reality of the Badjao life which is based on kinship with the sea.
Leadership is exercised by older members. The authority is based on individual innate qualities, wisdom, and ability to get followers. The Badjao leader is traditionally called Panglima, who is empowered to settle disputes, collect fines, and solemnize marriages."
Badjao Tribe
V. Scattered along the coastal areas of Tawi-Tawi, Sulu, -Basifah, and some-coastal municipalities of Zamboanga del Sur are the sea-nomads commonfy known as the Badjaos.
The Badjaos have no permanent dwellings and live on their boats throughout the year. In some places, the Badjaos have built houses usually 20 to 30 feet long with a width of 15 feet thereby forming a perfect rectangle. Fronting their house is an open platform to serve as boat landing stage.
Marriage among the Badjaos is usually arranged by the parents of the bride and the groom. The common feature of the marriage arrangement is the giving of the dowry by the groom.
In socio-political organization, every Badjao village lies in headman chosen by generals from among the household heads. Wealthy men in the Badjao community are the most respected ones. They usually maintain large households and have an extensive circle of supporters.
The Bago
This tribal group called Bago is a product of intermarriage between the Ilocanos of the lowlands and different indigenous cultural communities of the Cordillera. They settled between the mountain ranges of Ilocos and the boarders of the Ilocos Provinces, La Union, and Pangasinan. They are of medium built physically, although some resemble the Kankanaeys having fair complexion and sturdy built.
Being of Iloco-Cordillera descent, they practice simple, ordinary methods of agriculture. Immersion within Ilocos crash cropping is very dominant in their farm products. Among Bago households, tobacco drying barns are readily found together with harvests of garlic and o¬nion. Their farming methods and practices include a system to initiate farm workers at harvest time through a working relationship known as gamal, ammuy, and bunggoy.
Prominent members of Bago indigenous group are former Governor Lupo Biteg of Ilocos Sur and his son Jonathan Biteg who also rose to become the Municipal Mayor of the same town.
Today, Bago Maors have founded a league of their own known as Ilocos Sur Upland Towns Association basically to serve as a springboard for higher political authorities to listen and head their aspirations and development thrusts.
The Bagobo
The Bagobos are proud people with proto-Malayan features. A strong social structure has enabled the group to blend well with the main body politic while retaining their indigenous customs, beliefs, and values. While many are in economically depressed circumstances, a great number have attained a considerable degree of self-sufficiency. Most of the Bagobos have suffered dislocation from the loss of their ancestral lands and the effects of modern day insurgency.
The Bagobos have ornate traditions in weaponry and other metal arts.They are noted for their skill in producing brass articles through the ancient lost-wax process. They also weave abaca cloths of earth tones and make baskets that are trimmed with beads, fibers, and horses hair.
The Balangao
The Balangaos with a population of 29,107 (1990 head count) are sometimes referred to as Boliwons, and are the settlers of the Eastern Mt. Province, specifically the towns of Barlig, Natonin and parts of Paracelis. Oral historians of the tribe claim that in the 17th century when the Gaddangs of Cagayan revolted and lost asainst the Spanish colonizers, the Gaddangs fled to the mountains and established settlements there. Added to the original inhabitants of the mountain slopes and river banks were the Gaddangs and migrations from the neighboring communities—the Ifugaos, Kalingas, and Bontocs. Culture blending for centuries resulted in the present Balangao/Boliwon ethnolinguistic group or tribe.
The Balangao dialect has dominant "ch," "r," and T sounds like the Bontoc. They have similarities in characteristics and physical features with their neishboring tribes but not in their beliefs, rituals, songs, and dances.
Balangaos had always been farmers and make quality bamboo/rattan crafts. Weaving and blacksmithing are their other crafts, including hunting, because in their areas there are still virgin forests.
Some Balangaos migrated to the cities and mines to seek greener pasture, but their hometown is still their where they go home from time to time to meet their obligations as true Balangao sons.
The Bantoanon
The name Bantoanon comes from the island of Banton, where they live, but some Bantoanons came, from the Islands of Simara and Sibale. The mode of livelihood among the Bantoanons are fishing, upland and lowland agriculture, trade and business.
To the Bantoanons, education is a very important aspect of life. They find ways and means to acquire better education for a better living and they believe that hard work, perseverance, and dedication will give them a better education.
The Bantoanons are a health-conscious people and most of them consider that "health is wealth." In addition, the Bantoanons of Romblon Province are easily identified by their last/family names which usually start with the letter "F". The Bantoanons speak a local dialect called Asi. The estimated Bantoanon population is 36,139 composed of an estimated number of households of 7,478 (OSCC IV, 1995).
The Batangan Mangyan
Batangan is one of the sub-tribes of Mangyan. They live in the forest of Mindoro, particularly in the Southern tip of Western Mindoro and belong to an ethnic stock called proto-Malay. They are approximately 49,019 (OSCC, 1987) people. They are bilingual, speaking their own Batangan language and Tagalog language.
Most of the Batangan do not have personal names. They also live a band-level social life. As for their costumes, both sexes wear a loin¬cloth (made of bark for the female), and married women also cover their breasts with scraps of cloth.
There are some variations in their types of dwellings. Their houses are made of bamboo and cogon grass. Some have elavated floors while others have none. They still maintain swidden agriculture and produce camote, taro, and upland rice.
Among the Batangan, the household is the smallest residential, economic, and ritual unit. The head of the household is the father or the husband. Sometimes, extended households are formed when two houses, built independently, are joined to appear as a single unit although the roof and floorings are separate. Each household has its own hearth, and each is composed of a nuclear family (Kikuchi, 1984). Among the Batangan, material property is equally divided as inheritance among male and female offsprings alike. Knowledge of folk medicine is taught to all male children. It is only when there is no male child that folk medicine is taught to the female children. Amurit or witchcraft is also taught to adult males through the old men in the group.
The title of fu:unan (priest) is inherited by the male line, from father to eldest son. The general function of the fu:unan are to attend to funeral and harvest ceremonies and, as the medicine man, to cure diseases. The rules of succession are: 1) If the fu:unan does not have a son, the oldest among the male children of his brothers becomes the successor; 2) If there is no male child on his side, the oldest nephew is chosen from his wifes side. 3) If his son is underage, the successor is selected temporarily according to rules 1 and 2. When the right successor comes of age, the title is returned to him (Kikuchi, 1984).
According to the analysis of the Batangan group genealogy, all members are affiliated with each other consanguineously or affinity. The caretaker or da:naama in a settlement emerges on the basis of age, good personality (kind, thoughtful, brave, etc.) and intelligence (able to speak Tagalog). The family of the caretaker is in charge of the whole area of the Batangan from generation to generation, due to having ecological knowledge of the area, so they can be called the "caretaker-centered kin group" (Kikuchi, 1984).
The Bontok
The Bontoc Igorots (population 157,876) are found in the Mountain Province of the Cordillera ranses. Their life, cultures, and personalities are profoundly motivated by the religious practices and rituals which have a historical depth of relisious lesends and supernatural traditions. Kinship amons themselves both as a unifing and satisfing factor as illustrated in the performance of rituals.
The costume of the people is simple. The men wear Iron strips of handwoven loin cloth called wanes. The women wear a kind of wrap-around skirt called lufid.
Men have more authority in matters of the beliefs and practices of the community than women. From birth to death, the Bontoc is sustained, guided, and molded by a tightly knit kinship structure, a community discipline exerted by the oldest men of high social status.
For the Bontoc family, children are the important link. Barren marriages are generally dissolved. A marriage is considered barren if no child results from the union after five years of marriage.
Among the Bontocs, the cycle of their existence revolves around the Ato. It is the place where the Council of Elders hold various ceremonies, meetings, and events. The Ato is also a public structure used as dormitory by the bachelors, young boys, widowers, and the visitors to the village. It serves also as a gathering place where all the men of the village spend the rest day called Tengao. It is here where their unwritten code of ethics was formulated. The code urges Bontoc:
- To respect the properties of others for people must lead good, honest lives.
- To be brothers to all men.
In past generations, the Bontocs were known as fierce head-hunters. This common practice was both duty and honor. Although they no longer practice head-hunting, they still do today to avenge the death of a fellow tribesmen.
The Bugkalot
The Bugkalots are found in the provinces of Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Quirino and Aurora, occupying no less than 62 widely scattered village-communities. Records reveal that the Bugkalots arrived during the early part of our history. Presently, they inhabit the easterly central part of the Caraballo and Sierra Madre Mountain ranges.
The Bugkalots subsist on the kaingin system of agriculture with rootcrops as their main product. Their main occupation is hunting wild game in the forest and Conwap rivers. At the head stream of the mighty Casecnan river is another group known as the Italon tribe whose members are of regular built and with Mongolian features such as narrow slanting eyes and aquiline nose. The same characteristics are observed among the other groups known as Abacas/ Tamsis, Dakgans, and Kadayakans, The Kadayakans are found in Ditale, Dipaculo and Bayanihan, Baler, Aurora (now Quezon). The Kadayakans speak fluent Tagalog aside from their own dialect due to the influence of the Tagalogs who inhabit the Province of Aurora. The Bugkalots found along the rivers of Bua and Tubo and in some parts of Conwap speak llokano. This group is found in Kasibu, Nueva Viscaya.
Presently, no less than 5,000 Bugkalot head families reside in the aforementioned provinces. Although they live far apart from one another, their linguistic similarities, customs and arts show that they belong to one distinct group.
The Bugkalots are known for their colorful attire, musical instruments, and artifacts which are shown in their blow-up pictures in museums patronized by foreign tourists in eastern and western Europe. Their popular festive dances is called baleleng. Their more hideous ritual which rallies all Bugkalots, male and female, is seen in the buayat, but this is not shown to the Christians.
The Bukidnon
The Bukidnon people belong to the original proto-Philippine stock. Although the Bukidnon groups are scattered, tradition reveals that they were once a homogenous group. The Bukidnon groups' major means of subsistence are food gathering and swidden agriculture. The women are skilled in making applique and embroidering garments.
The different cultural communities found in the Province of Bukidnon are Manobo groups: the Bukidnon, Higgonon, Matissalug, Talaandig, Tigwahanon, and Umayamnon. The Arumanen is another sub-group.
The Bukidnons speak the Binukid dialect. They have light brown complexion, straight black hair, have an average height of about five feet. Their nose bridge is not flat.
Courtships and marriages among the Bukidnons dre brought about by parental arrangements made since the children were eleven years old. Men practice polygamy but the women are expected to be monogamous. Marriage is done by exchanging betel with molded rice.
Bukidnon art is best expressed in their dances, poetry and music, mat weaving, and basketry. The Bukidnon musical instruments consist o bamboo flutes, bamboo Jew's harp, one-stringed violin, and the boatshaped guitar.
The Bukidnen handicrafts consists of mats, hats, fishtraps, and cloth weaving. The traditional method of farming is still being practiced by the Bukidnen farmers in upland areas. The agricultural products produced by the farmers are palay, corn, sugarcane, pineapple, coffee, cassava, abaca, and vegetables.
The power of the Bukidnen chieftain or datu is built on trust and the confidence of his constituents. It is a blend of ascription and achievement and not governed by seniority or birth.
The Cimmaron
Cimmarons are found in Buhi, Isarog, Iriga and Caranwan, all of Camarines Sur, Bicol Region numbering to 9,187 (OSCC, 1987). They are dark brown in skin color being the offspring of intermarriages between Aeta and the Malays (Bicolanos). Only a few of them have curly hairs. (Jagor, Reisin, p. 106) They are multi-lingual, being able to speak their Cimmaron language, Bicol, and Tagalog.
Their houses are provided with items such as coconut shells, bamboo implements, clay pots, and weapons. Their houses are protected from enemies by means of mantraps or sharpened stakes which are carefully camouflaged and hidden in the paths leading to their homes. They cultivate potatoes, gabi, mais, sugarcane, tobacco, etc.
The mens attire is limited to the G-string while the women wear a type of skirt which covers the hips down to a portion just above the knees. Their weapons are bows and arrows, spears, round wooden shields, and a broad sword. They have friendly relations with the Bicolanos with whom they trade agricultural products.
Polygamy is an accepted practice. The woman is sold or purchased at an average price of ten bushknives to ten dollars in cash. (Jagor, Reisin, p. 171). During the marriage, the father of the bride gives a banquet during which much coconut palm wine is drunk.
They believe in the existence of spirits, which they keep from doing harm by offering them food and betel chew. Sometimes, a ritual practitioner goes into a trance to communicate with the spirits.
The Cuyonon
Cuyonen or Cuyonon are mostly found in Cuyo Island, Palawan. They are engaged in swidden farming and fishing. The conversion of the people in Cuyo Island to Christianity has led to the merger of the animistic beliefs of the Cuyonen with the Christian elements to produce a folk Christianity which is the prevailing belief of the Cuyonon.
The Cuyonon are believed to be of Malay origin. They are of medium build with brown complexion, and with straight or curly hair. The Cuyonon speak the Cuyono dialect.
The Dumagat
The term Dumagat may have been derived from the word gubat(forest) and hubad. The more logical origin of its name is taga-dagat which referred to "sea gypsies".
They typify the outstanding negrito physical traits of dark brown to black color and curly hair. The few cases of straight hair and light complexion may be chiefly the result of mixture with lowland Christians. They have beautifully proportioned bodies, arms, legs, and breasts especially among women. Their stature compares to an average Filipino. The women stand at 4 feet 10 inches to 5 feet 4 inches and the men tower from 5 feet to 5 feet 9 inches.
The Dumagats are found in the provinces of Nueva Ecija, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Camarines Sur, Camarines Norte, Rizal and Bulacan. They live in single-pole make-shift nipa huts along river banks during summertime and move to sturdier dwellings on higher grounds during the monsoon rains.
They live the life of hunters and rattan traders. Hunting is their basic occupation. Their weapons consist of bow and arrow. Hunting with dogs is a favorite technique. They gather rattan palms from the forest clearings and scrapes them until they are ready to be split into smaller pieces. After these are ready, they deliver them to their tabong (market) in the lowlands and exchange them for rice, sugar, salt, and other basic commodities. They also use the kaingin system of farming. They also live by fishing with hooks, traps, and spears.
Dumagats speak a language of their own among themselves. But as scholars have discovered, they can also speak with facility the language of the region to which they have migrated. A careful examination of the Dumagat language today places its historical origin at the adaptation of a mixed Palanan dialect around 1783 when different ethnic groups took refuge in the town in their attempt to escape the tobacco monopoly. The vocabulary consists largely of Tagalog, Ibanag, llocano, and Visayan terms.
For the Dumagats, there is no wedding ceremony but a simple celebration to which the couples relatives and guests are invited and at which the union is announced. As simply as the union is made, so too is its dissolution. A Dumagat couple separates simply by mutual consent.
The Dumagats have no structured religion of their own although they claim to believe in nameless, faceless gods whom they invoke to protect them from danger. They are peace-loving people. When they die, usually of sickness or old age, their remains are placed in simple coffins of buho or bamboo and buried in silence. No prayers are offered over the graves, no sad songs chanted. Relatives and friends of the dead put aromatic herbs around their arms to serve as their perfume.
The Gaddang
The term Gaddang means carabao hide or pelt. It is said that the Gaddangs have already been using carabao hide for making rope long before abaca was discovered for this purpose. The term "Gaddang" has been used in referring to this indigenous group located in Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela, Quirino, and Cagayan.
The Gaddangs have long been acculturated unlike theirother brothers who still practice some of their traditional ways. Most of them sport body tattoos.
The traditional pattern of economic activity is swidden agriculture in well-forested areas, supplemented by the raising of crash crops such as maize and tobacco.
The Gaddang social organization illustrates the way in which a society adapts to a particular habitat through swidden cultivation. The Gaddangs have been using carabaos and plows for only about 10 years. Because the Gaddangs lack stable socio-political units, the dispersed settlements are linked together through a formal and informal network of social relations.
The household is the minimal social unit. Economically, the household stands alone, and probably reflects the way in/which the Gaddangs have traditionally adapted to their environment.
The Hanunuo
Hanunuo Mangyans can be found within the territorial jurisdiction of the towns of Mansalay and San Pedro (Bulalacao) along the periphery of Southeastern Mindoro. Their population is approximately 66,132 (OSCC, 1987).
Hanunuo means "true", "real," or "genuine". According to Conklin, when he asked them what kind of Mangyans they were, the Mangyans' answers to his queries were nothing else but their claim to be true, real, and genuine Mangyans. True enough, because among the Mangyans they have remained faithful to the traditions of their forefathers.
The Hanunuosare fairly tall in structure, and their bodies are slim and well-proportioned. They have oblique eyes, flat nose, prominent cheekbone, flat forehead, and olive skin. Men have their custom of sporting a long braided hair in the upper part of their head with the rest of their hair cut short, if not shaved. Women hang up their hair behind their heads, sometimes held in place by a beaded band which serves as ornament. Their hair is long and wavy.
Being more stationary than the other Mangyans, their houses are more permanent structures made out of light materials, elevated up to four or five feet from the ground, supported by bamboo posts or sturdy forest lumber and roofed with nipa materials or cogon grasses. The whole house is a big room used for sleeping, eating, workroom, etc.
Majority of the Hanunuo men still cling to the age old custom of using the G-string, but those who have intermarried with lowlanders substituted G-string with short pants. The women cover themselves with a rectangular piece of cloth with both end sewn together which serve as skirt. They both wear an upper garment, a long sleeved, tight-fitting shirt called the balukas for men and Idmbons for women. For everyday use, they have a short sleeved garment which they call subon. They use a woven belt called nito and wear beaded bands around their necks and arms.
Hanunuo Mangyans possess a system of writing which is a descendant of the ancient Sanskirt alphabet. In the Mangyan syllabary, there are eighteen characters, three of which are vowels and the other fifteen characters are written combined with those vowels. For writing materials, they use the s/yawor a bob-shaped knife for inscribing and the bamboo, either split or whole, for paper.
During merrymaking, the musical joust is participated in by both sexes. Gitgit, Kudyapi, Kinaban, and all string instruments, are usually played by men while those played by women are the lantuy (a bamboo flute), taghup or tanghup (a whistle made out of bamboo). Like music, the ambahan (a poem with lines of seven syllables) has found its place as a tool for courting women.
Social life among the Hanunuos revolves around the family. Mangyan girls marry at an early age. During courtship, a young man convinces the girl of his intention through the use of ambahan. In between the recitations, he plays his subing, a three-string guitar. Marriage plans including the dowry are arranged by both parents. The actual wedding is short, the greater part consists of admonitions and advices dispensed by a magdadniw, a kind of minister.
Relation of the individual to the community is one dominated by the spirit of cooperation and togetherness. They have no written laws. Whateverthey have in the form of laws has been handed down to them by their elders verbally in the form of counsel and advice. In some cases, when troubles arise, the disputants settle their differences in the presence of an elder, a judge who decides the matter. Justice is then meted out to the offending and the offended parties. Different offenses are given different punishments.
Hanunuos have two burial occasions. The first takes place soon after death. The second after a year or two years when the bones have to be exhumed. They believe in a supreme being called Maha na Makaako who watches over them and loves them. They also believe that their supreme being has a son called Presidents who executes his father's command. They also believe in evil spirits and immorality.
The Higaonon
The term Higaonon means "people of the wilderness". The Higaonons occupy not only parts of the Bukidnon Province but also the hinterlands of Agusan del Sur and boundary of Misamis Oriental and Bukidnon Provinces.
The ethno-legal aspect of the Higaonon culture revolves mainly around the datu system. Here, a principal headman rules over an entire community/band composed of several clans. Under this headman are a member of minor datus that form a sort of a counselling body. As the headman, the datu is responsible for the administration of the entire community. The status of the datu is both acquired and achieved, A dying datu passes his title to one of his children, preferably a son, through selective inheritance. It is usually the most deserving son who is chosen to acquire the status of a datu.
The Ibaloi
The Ibalois are predominantly farmers. With their fertile soil and temperate climate, they were able to raise a variety of crops. Rice is the main crop of Kabayan and other Ibaloy municipalities where irrigation waters from rivers and streams to the rice fields through constructed canals alfow two croppings a year. They also raise livestock. Seldom does one come across a native who does not raise pigs, cows, carabaos, goats, and chickens. They may also be goid panners (pansejew).
The Ibalois occupy the southeast of Benguet. They speak Nabaloy, with a linguistic sound nearer to the Pangasinanse. This may be due to the free movement and interaction of the natives of Pangasinan in the pre-Spanish era. They are concentrated in Kabayan, Bokod, Tuba, Itogon, Tublay La Trinidad, Sablan, and Atok of these municipalities are within the province of Benguet, Cordillera Region.
They are peaceful, hardworking, and hospitable tribesmen. They are generally fair in complexion and have well-developed bodies, usually standing 4 to 5 feet above in height. They have medium and narrow noses and some have broad flat noses. They have deep-seated brown and black eyes. Most of the women have straight long hair although there are also some who have curly hair. The Ibalois are not far apart in their customs, beliefs and traditions with the Kankanaeys, except that they are linguistically dissimilar. Their belief systems are similar except with deviation in methods of performance. The intent and purpose, however, do not change.
The Ibanag
The Ibanags (population 335,780 - National Council, of Churches in the Philippines for February 1988) are concentrated in the provinces of Cagayan, Nueva Vizcaya, and Isabela. The Ibanags are among the minority of Filipino people that live alonsg the banks of the Cagayan river. They are the most assimilable and adaptable among groups of the Filipino people. In Cagayan, Ibanags are often found in Tuguegarao, Abulug, Pamplona, Camalaniugan, Lal-lo, Amulong, Iguig, Penablanca, and Aparri towns.
The Ibanags are agricultural and clanish people, so in a barrio, each one is a relative of someone. Being easily assimilated and adapted, they are easily influenced by people around them. This is evident in their taste of food, clothing, and language.
Marriage customs, to a great degree, have been made simple. Expenses are now borne by both parties unlike before when the grooms parents shouldered all wedding expenses. Preparations may not be very lavish but the umune-ca presents and maginterga are still parts of marriage customs, likewise the gala is, sine qua non especially in rural wedding.
Today, the Ibanags practice their traditions and customs especially in the far-flung barrios. Most of the Ibanags in towns no longer adhere to these customs because they are economically rich and educated and thus, initiating modification in their traditions and practices. The Ibanags are engaged in fishing and farming. Many of them are already educated and blended with the cultural majority.
The Ifugao
The Ifugaos, immortalized by their magnificent rice terraces, inhabit the rugged terrain of the extensive Cordillera Mountain ranges of Central Northern Luzon. They have developed and maintained a distinct culture which until recently has resisted outside" influences. Until modern times ended their isolation, the only world they knew was their environment of towering mountain ranges, rolling hills, windy plateaus, warm valleys, shallow but swift rivers, dense forests, innumerable rice paddies, and kainginon the mountainsides.
If asked about origins, an Ifugao will readily repeat folklore handed down through generations. He will vividly trace his first ancestors through a large body of myths, especially those pertaining to the creation of the Ifugao world. The Ifugao will declare categorically that his ancestors were the direct descendants of the deities of the sky world (lagud), which explains why none of their myths make any mention of migrations into Ifugao land.
Later studies however, describe the Ifugaos as the descendants of the first wave of Malay immigrants to the country. They are described as medium build, brawny and brown with black eyes, straight hair, and thin lips. They are industrious people who depend mostly on rice growing for their livelihood supplemented by livestock and poultry raising. For many generations, the Ifugaos have woven on looms and carved works of art from blocks of woods. The rice terraces is a symbol of their industry that will live through the ages.
The major sub-groups of Ifugao are Tuwali, Ayangan, Hanglulo, and Kalanguya. The sub-grouping is based largely on the difference of dialects, partly on the variation of oral traditions and customs and slightly on the design and color of costumes. In Ayangan for instance, the sound -ch- is very common and prominent. This is the equivalent of the -d- sound in Tuwali and Kalanguya. Hence, the Tuwali word "wada" (there is) is pronounced "wacha" in Ayangan. The Ayangan has also the sound -f- (pronounced in a hard manner and resembles a soft -v). The Tuwali term "bale" (house is pronounced "foloy" in Ayangan and "baley" in Kalanguya.
The Tuwali sub-group occupies major parts of Banaue, Hinsyon, Hungduan, Lagawe, and Kiangan. The Hanslulo tribe occupies Asipulo, the Ayangan occupies Mayaoyao, of Kaingan and Alfonso Lista, while the Kalanguya sub-groups are found in Tinoc and a small part of Kiangan. The Ifugaos practice a number of rituals. Some of these rituals are Hingot, the betrothal ritual which announces the union of two families^ (generally marriages among the Ifugaos are pre¬arranged); Amung, a sacrificial ritual wherein the gods and the family's ancestors are asked to make the body healthy, the mother well and strong, and the family wealthy; Uya-uy, a ritual of feasting; Hagabi, a ritual for those aspiring to attain the rank of the real "kadangayan,-" Ketema, a ritual intended to identify the spirit who caused a certain sickness; Ayag, a ritual performed to identify the evil spirits who caused an illness; and Kolot, a ritual for the first cutting of child's hair.
The Ikalahan
The term Ikalahan is derived from the word Kalaban which refers to the type of forest trees srowins in the area. The prefix "I" denotes residents. The "people of the forest" number 30,000 (National Council of Churches in the Philippines February 1988). They are concentrated in the boundary of Sta. fie and Pangasinan, Kayapa (Province of Nueva Viscaya, Region II), and Buguias (Province of Benguet, CAR). The Ikalahans are short people, fair complexioned, black round eyes, and black straight and silky hair. Their noses are fairly developed. They are shy and they live in far flung areas, unreached by any type of transportation.
The Ikalahan economy is basically agricultural. The primary source of livelihood is swidden gardens planted with several varieties of camote and gabi. Other crashed crops like beans, bananas, gingers, and few trees are also planted. Rice is grown mainly in a few terraced fields, Ikalahans also practice occasionally wet agriculture.
Raising pigs and chickens is an important part of Ikalahan economy. Pigs, because of their importance in prestige feast, have been used as the primary index of wealth in Ikalahan society. In recent times, because of the diminishing observance of the prestige feast, ownership of cows has becomea more important indicator of wealth.
Handicrafts, such as making brooms, baskets and backpacks, are seasonal cottage industries in Ikalahan homes.
The musical instruments of the Ikalahans are gongs, or gangsa, guitar or galdang, pakgong, and ko-ling (law harp).
To the Ikalahans, the person in authority are the elders or Nangkaama, Their decisions and advices are well respected. The ascendance to the elder status does not require any election nor is it received through inheritance. It is an earned status through community recognition of one's ability to accomplish reconciliation. This leaderhip quality is most pronounced in the Tongtongan (conference), where all sorts of crimes and offenses are settled through the council of elders. Tongtongan is the highest arbitration body in the Ikalahan society. It is composed of elders acting as judges and counselors at the same time. It serves as the official venue for the solution of problems, crime, and other issues brought to its attention.
The Ilianen
The Ilianen or (Iranen) are very closely related culturally and linguistically to both the MaGuindanaon and the Maranaos. Sometimes the Ilianens(especially those living in Lanao del Sur) are counted with Maranao and sometimes with the Maguindanaon. But historically, they have been a separate group, though all three groups sprang from common ethnic origins loNg centuries ago. The Maguindanaon word "Manawen" (people from the lake) is suggestive as the original form of the name "Ilianen".
The Ilianen are primarily concentrated along Iliana Bay coast, north of the mouth of the Pulangi River all the way to Sibugay Bay in Zamboanga del Sur. They are active traders and historically they were great buccaneers. They have their own datus but in the past they more or less acknowledged the overlord ship of the Sultan of Maguindanao. Most of them engaged in fishing while the rest raise food crops.
The Iraya
The term iraya is said mean "man" or "human being". The Irayas are the Mangyans of Mindoro who occupy the northwestern part of Mindoro Island. The estimated population of the Iraya-Mangyan is 10,689 distributed in around 141 settlements in the municipalities of Abra de Hog, Mamburao, and Paluan (OSCC, IV, 1993).
Accordins to the Iraya customs and traditions, the family is considered as the basic unit of production and consumption. Their kindred system is traced to both the father and mothers links which their system refers to as guraan. The nuclear family is referred to as talnakan wherein there already exists a social order. The eldest takes the place of the parents during their absence and is considered the second parent. He/She is likewise considered as the intermediary between the parents and the younger siblings.
Among the Iraya, leadership is provided by the puon-balayan, in the local group referred to as sanguraan composed of closely related families. Moral and legal problems are referred to the puon-balayan for decision. Any criminal act or offense done is corrected with the use of either the pangaw or tige. Pangaw is the Irayas version of a detention cell. Tige on the other hand is a punishment wherein the suspects of a particular offense are called and are ordered to immerse their right hand in a pot of boiling water to pick the white stone at the bottom of the pot. Any one of the suspects whose right hand gets burned is considered to be the guilty party. It is believed that the innocent parties will not get burned in this particular test because Apo Iraya will protect them from harm.
The Isarog
The Isarog group is a class of Bicol Asia found in the vicinity of the Isarog volcano located in Iriga around Buhi, near Mazaraga in the Cordillera of Caramuan, Camarines Sur and in the neighborhood of Libon and Tabaco, Albay, There are 7,711 (OSCC, 1987) of them scattered in those areas.
Many do not have settlements but they wander around like the Aetas of Negros. Others have houses that are scattered in the jungles (Cavada I. p. 213, 221). Those who live in the vicinity of Mazaraga volcano are very friendly and live in peace with Christians, allowing them to have some of their children baptized.
Their physical appearance is like the other Asia groups due to the intermarriage of Agfa and lowlanders. They have deep seated eyes, brown skin color, curly hair, and height of barely five feet tall. They have an ancient practice like that of the Dayaks of Borneo, which is killing the first stranger that one meets upon the death of one of their relatives (Jagor, Reisin, p. 164). They can speak other languages like Bicolano and Tagalog.
The Isinai
The Isinais are located in three towns of Dupax, Bambang and Aritao in the province of Nueva Vizcaya. They speak the same dialect with the same minor differences like the intonation, pronunciation of final consonants, and some verbal terms.
Physically, Isinais are predominantly a Malay blend but with a high percentage of short people, fair complexioned, with rounded big eyes, natural hair, high cheek bones, well shaped nose, and widened lips. Women are physically more buxom than men.
Isinays are known to be religious people. Often they are religious leaders in the community, observing the daily oracion and pasyon during the Holy Week. Many of the Isinays social customs are quite distinctive. They are markedly conservative and adhere to the old practices. An evidence of this is their stern disapproval of intermarriages between members of their tribe and neishboring folk (especially the llocanos). With regard to the custom on pregnancy and childbirth, meticulous care is taken to insure the welfare of a woman during the period of pregnancy, pansisipe. A lot of dos and donts are strictly followed especially after giving birth. For example, the woman is advised not to take a bath for ten days, and carefully selects the food she will eat lest the young born child will be affected.
With regard to the Isinais socio-economic activities, 80% of their sustenance is derived from agriculture. They harvest twice a year and plant vegetables in between seasons. Five percent are fishermen who just rely on fishing in the river. They use their old way of catching fish like tabuu (using net) and panipit(using bamboos) and manual ways of catching fish. Five percent are carpenters and laborers; still another five percent are raising animals like pigs and broiler chickens. As for the middle class Isinays, they manage their own ranches and raise their carabaos for market.
The Isnag
The Isnags are a small ethnoliguistic group in the mountains of Apayao. They are one of several mountain people who were never subdued in nearly 350 years of Spanish rule. The Isnags live in settlements along the river, but move up the hills to tend their farms during certain seasons of the year. Each village along the river is marked by tall coconut palms towering above it. Most villages are quite small. Despite all the space at their disposal, the people still build their houses rather close together, both for protection and-companionship.
Like most other Filipinos, the snagsare of Malay-type ancestry. Little is known about where they came from before they settled in Apayao, or when they came. Various names have been used to designate the Isnas. They are called los Apayaos or los Mandayas in Spanish references. Los Apayaos refer to the river along whose banks the people live; and los Mandayas is related to an Isnas word meaning "upstream".
The word Isnag probably came from an llocano word meaning "from Tineg," a town and a river in Abra. The word later came to mean "enemy" and was later discarded, and this mountain people came to be known by their neighbors as Isnag. Isnag and Apayao are alternative terms that refer to the inhabitants of Apayao in what used to be a part of Mountain Province before it was partitioned into the five provinces of Bensuet, Kalinga, Apayao, Mountain Province, and Bontoc. Very little is known about how the Isnags lived before the Spaniards came to the Philippines. It is probable that they lived much as they do today — by hunting, fishing, and kaingin farming/That there was direct or indirect trade with China is evidenced by the Chinese jars, plates, and beads that are prized possession of many Isnag families.
Activities related to head-taking occupied a large part of the time of Isnag men: learning the art of war, training the young men, making and repairing their weapons, and protecting their homes and families from attack. There were four major reasons why the men took heads: for religious reasons, for prestige, as a qualification for marriage, and for revenge. After a number of battles before and after 1913, the Isnags were convinced that their spears were no match for the "thundersticks" of the Amercian soldiers. From that time on, the Isnags lived as a comparatively peaceful people.
The religion of the Isnags was animistic; their traditional religious beliefs were concerned with their relationship with a great number and variety of spirits. Two elements usually present in religions were largely lacking in that of the Isnag: belief in a supreme being, and a serious attempt to explain the nature of the universe.
Beauty seems to have very little premium, if at all, in Isnag customs and traditions, with respect to courtship and marriage. Consideration of beauty is not what propels Isnag swains toward the choice of a mate but rather a woman's capacity to work. Health and strength are considered more important. Amazon-like women have a decided edge over the fragile ones in the contest for the affections of man. Such seems to be the sad lot of the Isnag women to work in the kaingins (swidden fields). A man who happens to own a large kaingin is constrained to indulge in polygamy, which is duly sanctioned by their traditions. However, it is rarely practiced as the Isnags resort to polygamy not for pleasure but to acquire additional help. The Isnags generally abhor marriage between cousins or kin. However, such marriages occur at times, but only because of such factors as scarcity of women, difficulty of travel, and enmity with other tribes.
Divorce is not entirely alien to the Isnags, which invariably reflects the flexibility of their character. But the principal reason for divorce, as with the Igorot, is failure to bear children. Educated Isnag women reject the custom of having them work on the farm. Thus, they prefer to marry into another ethnic group, preferably the llocanos who are reputed for their industriousness.
The Itawes
The Itawes inhabit the territory drained by the Chico and Matalos rivers as well as all of Southern Cagayan from Nasipins to the Village of Cavug, now the town of Enrile. Except for certain nuances in their language and the flair among-their womenfolk for ornamentation and colorful attire, nothing basically differentiates them from the Ibanags of whom they really are an ethnic subgroup. They got their name from "tawid".
The early natives of Cagayan never referred to one another by the group description of Ibanass, or the l-Rita (those from the south). Occasionally, l-Raya was also used.
The Itawes culture seems to be quite distinct from that of the lbanags.. The Itawes mode of dressing appears to be likewise more colorful, red being a dominant color. The woman used to wear beads on their heads, a practice still found among those in the remote areas.
Farming seems to be a leading source of livelihood. Almost three-fourths (72.7%) of the people of the province are engaged in agriculture, hunting, forestry, fishing, and related occupation.
The average Itawes family seems to be education-conscious, this being shown by the good number of their children being sent to school.
Based on the dialect the people appear to be the most versatile group in the province. They speak /banagand llocano. The Itawes dialect has also other peculiar characteristics such as the frequent use of double consonants like cc, kk, w.
The contemporary Itawes are a charming, friendly, and sociable group whose daily mode of life is not markedly different from the rest of their countrymen, whether in the style of their houses, their occupation and religious affiliation, all of which are signs of the Itawes culture.
Death among the Itawes galvanizes not only the family but also the whole neighborhood or community into action. The usual church rites for the wakes and burial are observed.
The Ivatan
The Ivatans are found chiefly in the Batanes group of small islands. Most of them are on the islands of Batan, Sabtang, and Itbayat. There is solid evidence for believing that the present Ivatans are the Christianized surviving group of an ancient people who once occupied all of the islands between Luzon and Taiwan, and who are probably represented in the purest form today by the natives of Botel Tabago. However, there probably exists a fairly strong cultural element on Batan derived from Chinese contact which is absent on Botel Tobago.
The people call their language Chirin nu Ibatan, but it is better known as Ivatan. Its dialects are the northern (Basco), Itbayat (Itbayat Island), the southern (Sabtang Island), and possibly Yami.
The dominant physical type is the Malay blend—short, squat, with a strong mixture of the short Mongol type. There are some individuals who seem to have some physical characteristics peculiar to the Ainus of Japan. Their general culture is markedly different from the Spanish-Filipino, but their economic and social life does show certain differences. The persistence of these cultural survivals are most probably due to theirgeographical isolation. They have several unique customs related to marriage and death. Many ancient beliefs have been preserved to this day.
The wedding itself takes place in the church, after which the wedding feasts follows. On festive occasions like this, the native delicacy (uvod) is served with the wine (palek). Dancing is very much a part of the occasion.
Today, most Ivatans like most Filipinos, are Catholic. However, the early Ivatans and those who have not become Christians have held on to a form of ancestor worship, which venerates the dead as anito, responsible for the maladies and misfortunes of men as well as their success and good fortune.
The Iwak
The Iwak population as a whole is not homogenous, and they disperse themselves among the dominant ethnic groups. Thereafter, they are acculturated into the characteristics of these dominant groups creating a variation of technology, language, and culture. Their settlements tend to cluster on the higher slopes of the mountains near stream sources. Hence, they are found in the watersheds of the drainage systems of the Cordillera and Caraballo mountains.
Iwak subsistence technology ranges from the intensive type of wet rice agriculture to slash-and-burn cultivation of both grain and root crops. This is a manifestation of the culure of the dominant tribes around them. Significantly, however, taro is still being cultivated; it is the preferred staple and ritually most prized. Recently, the sweet potato has been supplanting taro in the Iwaks daily diet in most areas but, indicatively, taro is still irreplaceable for ritual purposes.
The market sphere of Iwak produce is concentrated in handicraft manufacturing. They are sold at outlets specifically at the town of Santa Fe, Nueva Vizcaya, which is the juncture of the Cordillera and Caraballo mountains. This production is limited to two kinds: basket and broom making. Basketry technique has three classes: Kabang- all purpose back basket; Gipia-small shallow tray used during meal time; and Dakilan — a large flat mostly used during rituals.
The Jama Mapun
The Jama Mapun, on closer examination may not be a distinct ethnic group. The Jama Mapun are rather another Sama sub-group. Their language, called Pullun Mapun, is just a dialect of the Sama language.
The Jama mapuns inhabit the Cagayan de Sulu and Turtle (Taganak) Islands, and are also found in Southern Palawan. The word Jama is a variation of the word Sama, and denotes west, i.e., west of Jolo Island. The Jama Mapuns refer to Job Island as "East" and their own Cagayan de Sulu as "West", a concept derived from the time when the Jama Mapun had a strong client relationship with the Sultanate of Sulu centered in Job. The Jama Mapuns earn their livelihood much like the other Sama groups except that some also cultivate upland rice. The latter activity is mainly done in Southern Palawan.
The Jama Mapun tribe is often mistakenly identified as Samal or Badjao, considering the fact that they mingle with these two tribes. The only distinction of this ethnic group is that originally they occupied the overlapping jurisdiction of the sultans of Sulu and Brunei and later on mixed with the Samals and Badjaos,
The Jama Mapuns primarily engage in dry rice agriculture, copra production, and trading. In the smaller islands and islets, they engage in fishing.
Jama Mapuns are found in Cagayan de Tawi-Tawi and in southern Palawan.
Marriage among the Jama Mapuns normally involved the payment of a bride price by the groom. Marriage among the first degree cousins is common to them.
In socio-political organization, their datu personifies the secular sector while the salip represents the sacred order. They share between these the function of social control and justice.
The Kalagan
The Kalagans are the Islamized indigenous peoples in the Western Davao gulf area. The Kalagans became Muslim probably during the middle of the 19th century, due to a combination of the following factors:
1. The political pressure and/or influence of the Tausug migrants in Davao;
2. Extensive exposure and Intermarriages of Kalagan and Masuind Tausug.
The Kalagans are mostly found in Dava Sirawan, around Tagum, Davao del Norte, Mati Davao Oriental some places in Davao del Sur, and the other two Davao provinces. The Kalagans use Tagakaolo language, Maguindanaon words are increasingly used.
They are agriculturists, cultivating rice, coconut for crashed crops, while those living along the coast engage in fishing.
The Kalibugan
The Kalibugans are said to be from the Subanon community who submitted themselves to the practice of intermarriages and change of faith. The Kalibugans are Islamized Subanons, an indigenous peoples found in the interior reaches of the two Zamboanga provinces. The word Kalibugan is a Sama-Tausug slang which literally means "half breed," and it is used to designate those Subanons who migrate to the coast and inter-married with Sama or Tausug villagers and embraced Islam. They remained Subanon in speech and in their culture.
Kalibugans lack a distinctive political organization. Most live their lives as subsistence farmers cultivating upland rice, roots, and tree crops. Their external trade relations tend to be dominated by their Sama-Tausug neighbors.
The Kalinga
The Kalingas are the indigenous peoples of Kalinga. They are generally known to be tall, darkcomplexioned, and lissome with high bridsed noses. Physically they are very sturdy and well-built so that their war-like characteristics make them more like soldiers. They are believed to be descendants of the second group of Malays who came to the islands, as presented in Philippine history books.
The name Kalinga is believed to have come from Ibanas Kalinga and Gaddang Kalinga which both mean "headhunters." The Kalingas must have acquired their name because of their tradition of headhuntins during tribal wars.
The Kalingas settle on levelled or terraced areas on the slopes of steep mountains near rivers and streams with free, clear running water through the Chico, Pasil, Tanudan rivers with wide plateaus and floodplains and a large portion of open grass lands.
Many villages or in Kalinga are located in strategic areas where the villagers can be forewarned of intruders, or where the surrounding terrain is rugged and form a natural defense because of "tribal wars". Tribal wars occur when a bodong peace pact system was broken or violated.
The bodong is the most admirable and efficient Kalinga institution. It is a peace pact or treaty between two tribes, wherein the Pagta or laws on inter-tribal relations are made. The bodong is also the Magna Carta of the Kalingas.
The main source of livelihood among the Kalingas is the payew(ricefields) and the uma (swidden farm). Aside from food production, cattle are pastured there, and poultry is raised in the backyard. Small fish (gadiw), shell, and marine life are taken from the rivers. Men hunt for wild pigs, deer, and wild fowl in the forest using spears, indigenous traps or rifles. Fruit trees, coconut, coffee, and bananas are grown while sugarcane is planted and made into basi(wine). Other economic activities among Kalingas are cloth and basket-weaving, blacksmith, and pottery.
The Kalinga household consists of a nuclear family and sometimes, an aged grandparent. In general, the Kalingas show great respect for elders and they are clannish.
The Kalinga society may be stratified into lawa or kapus(poor) and the baknang(wealthy). Among the signs of prestige and wealth are possessions of several ricefields, working animals, heirlooms like china plates and jars, agate head/necklaces, and brass gongs.
The identification of self with the kinship circle could be such that whatever an individual does is the responsibility of the group, and whatever threatens the security of the group must be opposed by the individual.
The Kankanaey
The Kankanaeys speak Kalkali, a dialect similar to the Bontocs and akin to the lloko and number about 125,000 (National Council of Churches of the Philippines, 1988). They are found in Bakun, North Central Benguet (Mankayan, Buguais, Kapangan, and Kibungan) and Western Bontoc (Bauko, Besao, Sagada, Tadian).
Agricultural lands are the tribes main source of sustenance and the chief form of wealth. The Kankanaeys have settled and remained in this region principally because of its agricultural potential. They constructed rice terraces which have become sufficient sources of food and performed extensive agriculture. Springs and waterfalls are the chief source of water for irrigating their terraces. They practice the kaingin system. They harvest their crops twice a year and they also live on hunting and fishing.
Hunting is done with spears and dogs, and by the use of a deep pit or bito, which is meticulously covered by a trap. Fishing is done with the use of bamboo fish trap like the obeor omatfor catching small fish and the uda, an elongated fish trap to catch eel (dalif), a special delicacy when cooked.
Women engage in blackloom weaving and produce native blankets, tapis, and basket. The men engage in bamboo basket weaving, woodcraft, pottery, and furniture making.
The Karao
The Karaos are the settlers of Harao and Ekip of Bokod, Benguet. They have long lived in rugged terrains, combed by gullys, creeks, and treacherous ravines. In recent years, some of them migrated to some parts of Nueva Vizcaya for land since farming is their main livelihood.
In spite of being surrounded by Ibaloi and Kalanguya, the Karaos were able to retain their own dialect, customs, practices, and lifeways that are distinct from those of their neighbors.
Stories handed down through generations claim that the ancestors originated from what is the Mountain Province of today. Somewhere in the municipality of Natonin, in Mountain Province, is a trace of deserted village showing mute evidence of a long abandoned settlement. To this day, the place bears the name Karao and the Natonin folks wonder where the inhabitants had gone. Oral historians among the Karao elders say that their ancestors moved as a tribe from one place to another, driven by epidemics and tribal wars, then finally settled in Bokod in the latter part of the nineteenth century and named the place Karao.
Like other cultures of Mountain Province, they have a public center where they perform rituals, calling this the Abonan similar to the Ato or Dap-ay of other groups. Other rituals and an ethnic dance, the taychek, are different from those of the Ibaloi.
Among a big group of Benguet women during gatherings, one can pick out the Karao women who are wearing white shenget turbans since all Benguet women wear the same Benguet attire. It is also said that snakes do not bite the Karao. Myth or not, the Karaos claim this.
The Magahat
The Magahats called Corolanos or Bukidnon of Panay are shifting cultivators in the mountainous areas of Southeastern Negros, in the municipality of Tanjas, Santa Catalina, Bayawan (Tolong) and Siaton, at elevations of 1,000 to 3,000 feet. Generally called Bukidnon, those tributaries of the upper Tayabanan are known as Magahat, referrins to a custom whereby the near relatives of a deceased person may go on a raiding party to the coastal regions to kill. If they are successful, they return home and bury their dead relative.
Predominantly "Indonesian" (Proto-Malay) in physical type, their languase is a mixture of Susbuhanons and Hiligaynon, both lowland Christian Filipino languages. Magahat culture is in general similar to the Sulod of Panay.
The Malaueg
The Malauegs are the ethnolinguistic group found mainly in Rizal, Cagayan. They are dark in complexion, of medium height and with big body built. As a people, they are quiet, humble, modest, and loyal. They derive their income mainly from agriculture and fishing. They still practice the old customs in their way of courtship and marriage. The Malauegs are monogamous. Dowry giving is observed. If the courtship becomes serious enough to give marriage a thought, they call this saripit. With respect to dowry, it has to be valuable enough to the parents of the woman.
Giving birth for a Malaueg mother is also replete with ritual practices. Upon birth, the child will be wrapped in a clean cloth and placed in a biga-o, thereafter, it will be pushed towards the door and then the child will be given a name. Afterwards, the child will be laid beside the mother who is then is given ampalaya leaf extracts so that the blood sucked inside the mothers womb is spewed.
The Mandaya
The Mandayas are a group of non-Christian tribe, non-Islamic people living in Eastern Mindanao, Philippines. Earlier accounts indicate that the Mandaya represented one of the most powerful tribes in these areas. Mandaya means "Inhabitants of the Uplands". The Mandayas are located in the provinces of Agusan, Davao, Surigao del Sur and del Norte, and the eastern areas of Cotabato. The Mandayas are also scattered throughout the eastern half of Davao province and northward of Lianga, Surigao del Sur and Southern Agusan. The tribe has an estimated population of 311,127 (OSCC, 1987).
The average height of a Mandaya male is 153.9 cms. while the Mandaya female average height is 81.3 cms. Both sexes wear their hair long and comb it in a knot at the back of the head. The women usually wear bangs over the forehead while the men allow a lock to fall infront of each ear. Their forehead is high, and their cheek bones are quite prominent. In general, the root of their nose is broad, low and depressed and there is a tendency for the ridge to be somewhat concave. The lips are thick and bowed; the skin is not tattooed but the eyebrows are often shaved to a thin line and the teeth are filed and blackened. This practice is done for beautifying the person and saving the youth from the ridicule of his peers.
Linguistically Cebuano-Visayan is used as the lingua franca with the Visayans and Chinese, though Mandaya Davaweno remains the household intergroup language.
Culturally, the Mandayas have retained their basic social, religious, and political organizations along with their traditional material crafts. The Mandaya religious structure centers on an elaborated hierarchy of spirits (anito) and a group of female mediums (balyan) who generally function as the interpreter of the supernatural to the natural environment.
The Mandaya women hand down from generation to generation the art of weaving cloth from the fibers of abaca plant, colored with root and mud dyes with intricate figures and patterns depicting the folklore and religion of the tribe.
Political authority among the Mandaya was vested in the headman, the Bagani. Each bagani, before assuming the title and role, had to kill seven to nine men in battle or through surprise raids upon neighboring areas. Each bagani had his domain of political authority where his rule was law.
The Manguangan
The Manguangan inhabit the mountains of Cordillera Sugut in Mindanao. They are scattered up to the great lakes of Buayan or Maguindanao and in the territory between what is occupied by the Manobo and the Mandaya in Davao and South Cotabato. They are about 3,488 in number (OSCC, 1987).
Although they are recognized by the Jesuits and others as a distinct tribe, they are considered to be just the sort of people mixed descent that one might expect to find in a region between the inhabitants of two tribes like the Manobo and Mandaya.
The Matigsalug
The Matigsalug is a distinct sub-group of indigenous peoples within the Manobo group.
They are presently inhabiting the ranges of Central Mindanao, Philippines.
There are 50,000 Matigsalugs in these ranges. An area of 77,134 hectares has been awarded to them as their Ancestral Domain certified by the Philippine Government, within 24,045 population.
Oral tradition has said that their original settlement was at the mouth of Salug River, which is now Davao City. They are the splinter group of the Manobo immigrants (Malayo-Polynesian origin) whose last jump off area to the mainland is the Sulu archipelago.
Pressures from inland pirates caused the Matigsalugto move up to the highwaters of Salug river, and even further inland also when the Muslims and others of Indonesian origin came and harassed them in their lowland and mid-latitude habitation. At present, the Matigsalug are 106 kilometers from the original habitation.
The Matigsalug, in earlier years, practice a hunting and gathering lifestyle with minimal agriculture efforts. Very recently, by the influence of migrant farmers and businessmen from northern Philippines and the island provinces, the Matigsalug shifted to sedentary land cultivation with more or less permanent villages.
What remained of their earlier lifestyle is now found in their cultural and artistic expression. This is evidenced by their costume of bright colored mid-rib blouses and short skirt, and with skillful hunting and gathering techniques. This early lifestyle is also shown in their music, songs, dances, poetry, epic, and spiritual expressions.
The Molbog
The Molbogs (referred to in the literature as Molebugan or Molebuganori) are concentrated in Balabak island and are also found in other islands of the coast of Palawan as for north as Panakan. The word Malubog means "murky or turbid water".
The Molbogs are probably a migrant-people from nearby North Borneo. Judging from their dialect and some socio-cultural practices, they seem to be related to the Orang Tidung or Tirum (Camucone in Spanish), an Islamized indigenous group native to the northeast coast of Sabah. However, some Sama words (of the Jama Mapun variant) and Tausug words are found in the Molbog dialect. This, plus a few characteristics of their socio-cultural life¬style, distinguish them from the Orang Tidung.
Molbogs livelihood includes subsistence farming, fishing, and occasional barter trading with the Sulu Bangsa Moro and nearby Sabah market centers.
In the past, both the Molbog and the Palawanon Muslims were ruled by Sulu datus, thus forming the outer political periphery of the Sulu Sultanate. Intermarriage between tausug and the Molbog hastened the Islamization of the Molbog. The offsprings of these intermarriages are known as kolibugan or "half-breed".
The Palananum
The Palananum consists of a mixed population whose members are nominal Christians. The Palananums live in and around the town of Palanan on the east coast of Isabela. The original settlement appears to have been chiefly a Tagalog fishing village, founded by people from the east coast of Tayabas province or thereabouts. Through intermarriage and close-contact with the forest and seacoast peoples of that vicinity, coupled with relations with the people in Cagayan Valley, a mixed community grew in which both a new culture and a new dialect gradually evolved.
The Palananum culture is similar to that of the coastal towns in northern Tayabas, but it has some unique features. Subsistence is partly from the sea, partly from agriculture, and partly from hunting and trade with the Negritos and other forest people. The local economic life is almost self-sufficient and depends little on imports. Substitutes for metal articles have been developed out of shell, horn, bone, and wood. Like the Ivatan, the Palanan people are almost isolated from the rest of the country for lack of communication facilities.
The Palawanon
The Palawanons (also known as Palawan or Pinalawan) are still in the stage of being Islamized). Many are recent converts to Islam, while about half of their estimated number are animists. They are mostly found inhabiting the southern interior of Palawan, particularly the areas south of Apu Rauan on the west coast and south of Abu-Abu on the East coast. Some are also distributed among the other Bangsa Moro groups in the Balabak-Bugsuk island group.
The Palawanons closely resemble the Tagbanua (literally "people of the village") and in the past they were doubtless the same people.
Some Tausug residents in Palawan call the Palawanons Traan "people in scattered places". Like the Yakan of Basilan, the Palawanons live in houses of sight of each other, scattered among their plots of farm land. Their main occupation is subsistence farming, cultivating mainly upland rice.
The Ratagnon
The Ratagnons who are sometimes called Latagnon or Datagnon occupy the southernmost tip of the Mindoro Island facing the Sulu Sea. The Ratagnon of Occidental Mindoro has an estimated population of 17,562 scattered in around 200 Ratagnon settlements (OSCC, IV, 1993).
Like all the other Mangyan communities, the Ratagnons are ensaged in swidden agriculture. Their villages are not formally developed. Settlements of four to five houses per settlement are located apart from each other. A typical Ratagnon house is made of indigenous materials — mostly of wood, bamboo, and nipa.
Some of the male members of the Ratagnon community still wear their traditional dress which consists of loincloth as a lower garment. The women wear woven cotton used as wrap-around matched with an upper garment made of handwoven nito just enough to cover the breasts.
The Remontado
No one knows exactly how the Remontados acquired their tribal name. According to the old folks it was a name given to them by the Spaniards when confronted with their mountain peoples ways. It is estimated that there are 8,028 (OSCC, 1987) tribe members today in the provinces of Rizal and Quezon. The Remontados are half-lowlanders for they are crosses between the offspring of a Dumagat father and a lowlander mother. They have brown complexion, light curly hair, and medium height. They are nomadic and practice swidden agriculture, producing camote, cassava, gabi, ubi, and rice for daily consumption.
Remontado women wear kimona (blouse) and saya (skirt) and the men wear camiseta (shirt) and G-strings if pants are not available.
They build fire outside their house using a bamboo called puyos. They cook their food in a bamboo and leaves of which they call binunyog. They practice this when they are outside their house. Their houses are of light materials like bamboo, cogon grass, and rattan.
They gather forest products such as rattan, almaciga, and orchids. They also make charcoal in addition tothey what they gather for money. They also hunt wild pigs and deer and sell the salted meat.
Remontados contract marriage at an early age as young as ten years old. No marriage rites are held. The parents of the girl set the period of balaihan which is the wedding celebration and, before the celebration ends, the elders of both parties give advice to the couple and then announce to the congregation that the two are already married.
They have no specific religion but they believe in God who created the earth. They honor the spirits of their dead and give food offerings of which they partake after the offering ritual, especially during a first harvest of crops.
The Sama
Within the Sulu sea basin alone, the majority of the coastal people belong to the Sama cultural community. The term Sama is a derivative of the word "Sama-sama" meaning togetherness. Hence, the 171,065 (OSCC, 1987) Sama members may be described as a cohesive and peace-loving people. They express themselves through verbal discussion and less through physical violence.
Each Sama sub-group is identified geographically according to the name of their coastal settlement. These include: Sama Simunul, Sama Balimbing, Sama Tawi-Tawi, Sama Sibutu, and Sama Ubian. Each of them have varied ancestral backgrounds, outlooks in life, economic lifeways, and types of social upbringing.
The Sama Simunuls claim to have descended from a mixture of Arab and native blood. They point to the color of their skin and physical traits as evidence of such descent.
The Sama Tawi-Tawis are said to have come originally from Johore. Their ancestors are believed to have crossed the ocean through small outriggers. Their forefathers were powerful men, having their supernatural power to invite unseen spirits called Jin to do things for them.
The Sama Ubians are Sea Dayak in origin. Among the Sama tribes who are generally peace-loving, the Sama Ubians are an exception. They are fierce fighters like the Tausugs. Their physical appearance is stocky and short with brown complexion. Their well-built physique may be attributed to their love of aquatic sports, swimming, and rowing.
Sama houses usually built along-coastal settlements for two reasons. Sanitation, because of the natural movements of the tide, and easy escape from enemies through ready vintas (boats).
Sama society is composed of the Barbangsa, of royal blood or nobility, and Mahardika, commoners who are free to exercise their basic rights over their private properties and their own professed religion.
Datuship carries both social and political status to an individual. Socially a datu is clothed with a sense of higher maratapat (prestige). A headman sometimes claims to be a descendant of Kasalipan. He is followed by the people because of his Sharif lineage, coupled with his extraordinary limuh (wisdom) and personal traits of honesty, justice, and fairness. He acts as an arbiter of conflicts, counsellor of marital problems, and even as a leader of religious celebrations.
From birth to death, the life cycle of the Sama is full of taboos emanating from folk religion and spiritism, interwoven with those of other doctrines. The Samas have the notion that the occurrence of luck and misfortune in the life of an individual is due to their belief in the concept of Kadar iban Janji or on what has been willed and destined by the Divine.
The Samal
The Samal tribe is divided into two major branches traceable to their recent geographical origin. The Western Samals predominate in the islands and Coastal regions to the west of Job. The Eastern Samals trace their ancestry to the east of Job.
The Eastern Samals were regarded as pirates and slaves. They posed a serious threat in the area of present-day Malaysia and Western Indonesia.
Samal settlement is characterized as small compact communities of 100-500 residents often organized as wards within villages and towns. Small houses generally consist of one or more small, rectangular rooms and an attached kitchen located on a single level, and raised above the ground on wooden pilings.
In a Samal community, a couple is normally recognized as married if they have established residence and a sexual relationship with one another. Dowry to the bride's father is common to Samal marriage arrangement.
On socio-political organization, Panglima is recognized as the leader in a Samal community. Social control rests on him.
Nowadays, a great number of Samals are found in Zamboanga City, Basilan and even in Zambaonga del Norte and Zamboanga del Sur who have migrated in search of better economic clout.
The Sangil
The Sangils inhabit the islands of Balut Sarangani and parts of the coastal area of South Cotabato and Davao del Sur provinces. The word Sangil is derived from Sangihe, an archipelago in eastern Indonesia located between Sulawesi (Celebes) and Mindanao which was the original home of the Sangil. In the past, the Sangils were among the buccaneers who attacked Spanish held territory in the Visayas and Luzon.
The Sangils had been Muslim prior to their arrival in Southern Mindanao. Their migration perhaps came about as a result of Dutch colonial pressure and increasing Christianization of their homeland (Sangihe Archipelago) starting in the second half of the 18th century. Their language seems to show affinity with the Sama language in terms of commonality of vocabularies, similarity of the manner of speaking, and the sound of the utterances of words. The Sangils earn their livelihood by fishing and cultivating small quantities of food crops. A few of them engage in boat-building of vessels like vintas and pumpboats.
The Subanon
The Subanons are concentrated in the Province of Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte, and parts of Misamis Occidental. The Subanons have very strong kinship ties and still practice hereditary succession and other indigenous traditions, customs, and beliefs.
The Subanon society is said to be patriarchal, with the family as the basic governmental unit. A person who is tasked to lead the community is given the title of a Timuay. The Timuay is expected by the community to settle disputes and to be concerned with all matters that are confronting the community.
Majority of the Subanons dwell sporadically in the hinterlands of Zamboanga del Sur. They depend on farming called kaingin as their means of livelihood. Usually, after harvest, they engage in hunting and fishing to augment their farm income.
Male Subanons are dressed in long pants called lambong and a long sleeved shirt called sinupa. The women wear skirts called tapis and blouses called kasinupo same as that are worn by the men. Both men and women wear turbans on their heads.
The Subanons have a distinct way of worshipping their God. They call their religion as khano. Their supreme being is diwata.
The Subanons build their houses high from the ground and the stairs made up of one piece of wood to forestall attack by other people.
Marriage among the Subanons is a great concern of the parents. The parents choose the life partner of their children who continue to live with their parents until they are prepared to live separately and independently.
On socio-political organization, the Subanons practice hereditary succession. Royal titles such as datu and timuay are conferred only to members of the royalty and to recognized and respected leaders of the community.
The Sulod
The most numerous of the various cultural-linguistic group inhabiting the mountains of Central Panay, Tapaz, Capiz, Lambunao, lloilo, Valderama, Antique provinces are the Sulods who are relatively unassimilated. Their estimated population is 13,814 (OSCC, 1987). A Sulod lass performing a dance ritual.
The Sulods occupy the rugged finger-like slopes along the banks of the river in the interior and higher mountain. It is because of this sandwich like location of their territory that the inhabitants are called by their neighbors Sulod which literally means closet or room. They speak the Sulod dialect with the combination of Kiniray-a and Ililigaynon.
The Sulods live in small discrete settlements, called puru, which are generally located near their kaingin or swidden. Each settlement averages five to seven houses. They look upon themselves as a social unit, being conscious of common interests and loyalties and having a perfectly clear idea as to which families belong to the unit and which do not.
The standard house of the Sulods is a four-walled, one-room dwelling raised about three or four meters above the ground on bamboo or timber posts and supported on all sides by several props called sulay. The roof is made of cogon thatch and the walls with flattened bamboo or bark of trees. Bamboo slats are the materials for flooring.
They are shifting cultivators and do not stay in one place for more than two years. Hunting is another source of subsistence. They also catch fish with the use of hook and line and fish traps. Aside from hunting and fishing, gathering vegetable products and edible fungi is a way of securing supplementary food.
The ordinary attire of the Sulods is like that of the lowland Bisayans. The women wear jacket with long narrow sleeves, usually made of silk and cotton with harmonious color. A band of red cloth is worn by women to hold up the barrel skin. On special occasions, the women wear a head dress of a narrow strip of cloth with silver coins seen on it with necklaces made of colored glass beads and silver coins strung together. The young men wear trousers and a shirt but some elder prefer to wear the traditional G-string. Their headwear is an ordinary burl hat during dry season and during rainy days.
The spear is the Sulods most indespensable weapon which he carries in work and in travel. They have very few household utensils. Coconut shells are used for drinking cups. They do not have tables or chairs; they sit or squat on the floor to eat. The musical instruments include the drum, gong, bamboo violin, bamboo flute, bamboo percussion, and bamboo Jews harp. There are at least two famous dances, the binanugdnd kuratsa.
The leader of the group which regulates the political, social, and economic affairs of the Sulod community is the Kahimataan. He participates in marriage arrangements, in the performances of community rituals, in the settlement of family feuds, in the payment of wergild, and in many other cooperative organization of the Sulod social, economic, and ritual life which is beyond the capacity of the nuclear family to handle. The Baylans are either men or women whose function is to communicate with major spirits during the important seances, to interpret dreams and omens relative to the general welfare of the communities, and to handle special magico-religious performances during ceremonies. The Mirku is called upon to administer herb medicine to the sick.
The T'boli
The T bolis are of proto-Malayan stock and are found in the mountain ranges of South Cotabato and Sultan Kudarat provinces. They have been known for their wealth of craft, elaborate traditional dresses, and vivacious dances and music. Today, they are also known for their unusual tie-dyed and woven abaca cloth called tinalak used for dresses during ceremonies and festivities. The intricate process in making the tinalak includes dyeing and painstaking weaving on back-strap looms. They are also known for their brass casting of human and animal figures, bells, and metal boxes.
The T boli women are known for their body ornaments. During ordinary days, the women can be seen wearing several sets of beaded necklaces, multiple brass bracelets, brass or beaded dangling earrings, and a wooden comb decorated with round pieces of mirror and trimmed with beads and fibers of horses hair. The men nowadays wear their, traditional dresses made of tinalakony during special occasions. Both the men and women wear brass ring in sets of five for each finger.
The T bolis have a variety of musical instruments including a drum, the agong, the kulintang, bamboo zither, flute,, and the hegalon; a long, slender and spindle-shaped two-stringed guitar. They have also a variety of dances which are mostly expressive imitations of their immediate environment.
The T bolis are engaged in kaingin or slash-and-burn method of clearing land for farming. They plant corn, upland rice, vegetables, and other rootcrops. They also raise domestic animals. Ownership of a horse is an indicator of financial and social prestige. Much of their produce is for household consumption. However, some use their produce to barter for other household necessities.
The Tabangnon
The Tabangnons are a group of wild mountain people living in the mountain fastnesses of Guinayongan in the province of Tayabas down to Paracale, Camarines Norte (Cavada, I, p. 230). Their population is estimated to be 10,463 (OSCC, 1987).
They are described in such a manner that one sees no difference in their way of life with that of the Agtas. They can speak their Tabangnon language, Bicolano, and Tagalog, being a multi¬lingual speaker. They are reported to raid the Christian Filipino settlements in order to obtain cattle and food.
They are believed to be the offsprings of the Remontado and Agta marriages. Like other Agta tribes, they genetically inherited the curly hair and dark skin of their ancestors, although they are taller compared with the other Agtas, since height is attributable to the Remontado physical built.
They are nomadic by nature and because of this they come to know the ways of life of the lowlanders. Thus, they become acculturated and adapted some practices of the Christians without totally losing their own identity by retaining some of their traditional practices
The Taboy
Another sub-tribe of Agta in Bicol is the group Taboy. The Taboys inhabit the island of Rapu-rapu, Albay, both the coastal sea and the inland. Their population is estimated to be 1,500 (OSCC, 1987).
Their physical structure is somewhat similar to that of Cimarron and Tabangnons of Camarines Sur and Camarines Norte who have dark, brown skin, trimmed nose, yellowish brown hair, lean mascular body, and average height often less than five feet tall.
The Taboys freely choose their life-partners without the intervention of the parents. Since marriage rites are not practiced, they just live as common husband and wife. They also practice polygamy but those who are Catholic converts institute marriage and monogamy.
Taboys living along the coastal area go fishing for food and sell some for purchase of rice and other household needs. They gather nipa (palm) leaves and make it into nipa shingles for additional income. They also gather mangrove trees for firewood and charcoal for sale. Others go to mainland Albay and work as laborers.
They respect their elders whom they consult for whatever problems they have.
The Tagakaolo
The Tagakaolos inhabit the western shores of the gulf of Davao and southern part of Mt. Apo. Tagakaolo, from the mountains, indicates that they came from the river sources. At present, they are also found in the coastal towns of Malita and Lais and Talaguton Rivers. Large numbers live in Malalog (Cavada, II, p. 221). Their population is approximately 124,698 (OSCC, 1987). Members of the tribe can be recognized by the close fitting suits of red and yellow striped-cloth. The majority of them have hair curled in locks. The teeth are usually mutilated and blackened, while shaving of the eyebrows and tatooing of the left forearm is common among them. They have always been broken up into small groups, often at war with one another, yet they appear to be quite uniform in type, language, and religious beliefs.
They believe in the supernatural being who is said to live in Mt. Apo. The Tagakaolos bring with them human sacrifices to this spirit of good and bad, especially when they imagine that he is angered or when they come to the volcano to gather sulphur (Ausland, 1881, p. 219).
Each upland river valley or highland plain is the district or domain of a ruling datu, a position which was inherited by primogeniture. The datu is both judge and defender of his fellowmen, who in turn work in his fields. A wealthy datu could have as many wives as he could secure, either by capture or by purchase. Each datu is the autonomous chief over an area.
The Tagbanua
The Tagbanuas now inhabit the eastern and western coastal areas of central Palawan Island, living largely within the municipalities of Aborlan, Quezon and Puerto Princesa. They are also found in Coron Island, north of Palawan, Northern Palawan, Busuanga Island and Baras coast. The estimated population of the Tagbanua is 129,691 (OSCC, 1987).
They speak the Palawano language and several dialects like Tandulanon, Silanganon, and Baras in each locality, while they can comprehend Tagalog, Batak, Cuyonen, and Calawian languages (SIL Ethnologue, 1984).
They dress just like the non-tribe lowlanders but some elder men prefer to use G-string for comfort while tilling the field or fishing.
For building their houses, the forest provides them construction materials such as bamboo and wood for a strong frame, anahaw leaves for roof and walls, and bamboo slats for the flooring.
The basic social unit of the Tagbanuas is their nuclear family composed of a married couple and their children. They are monogamous.
The Tau't Batu
The Tau't Batu or Taw Batu means "people of the rock". They were found by a study team to be still residing in their cave-homes although others had already moved out to the open slopes. They occupy the Singnapan Basin, a bowl shaped valley situated in the southwestern part of Palawan, bounded by Mt. Mantalingajan on the east and a coastal terrain on the west. On the North lies the municipality of Quezon and on the south, the deeper hinterlands of southern Palawan which are still unexplored. Their population is about 198 (OSCC, 1987) individuals.
The Tau't Batu are very articulate in Palawan, a language spoken by the different groups in the southern portion of the island and the Tau't Batu language. Only two men could speak Tagalog, Lineas and Ujir, both Palawans who married Tau't Batu women (Peralta, p. 149).
The Tau't Batu are still primitive in their lifestyle, even in the way of dressing. The men stll wear G-strings made of bark and cloth and the women wear a piece of cloth made into skirts to cover the lower body. Both of them are half-naked but sometimes women wear a blouse which is not indigenous but obtained through the market system.
The Tau't Batu's craftmanship is more crude compared with other Palawan group, except in exceptional cases involving bastetry (Peralta, p. 150). Around cave-dwellings, for example, they construct a light and sturdy lattice-work made of saplings lashed together and anchored fast to crevices in the walls to provide access to the caves. The construction does not depend on any major framework to hold, the unit against the walls. The anchorage is distributed all along the framework such that the breakdown of one section can be compensated for by the rest of the construction. With conditions varying in different caves, there are modifications and elaborations on the basic datag or sleeping platform, paga or multi-purpose platforms, and fagkawor granary.
There are two musical instruments known, the Kubing and Kudlonsaskte from the gong.
They are swidden cultivators, practicing multiple cropping with cassava as the major source of carbohydrate. They also produce sweet potato, sugarcane, malunggay, garlic, pepper/string beans, squash, tomato, pineapple, etc.
They practice agriculture, fishing, hunting, and industrial arts and trade for economic subsistence. The levels of social organization are the family, based on kin ties, the band based on subsistence activities and the settlement based on geographic locality.
In marriage, the Bataks are free to choose their partner and have to offer the bride price. Bride service is not compulsory, except when the father of the bride demands it. Mostly, they are monogamous and polygamy is rarely practiced. Intergenerational marriage is prohibited but divorce is allowed especially in cases where there is severe marital conflict.
They call their elder leaders Kapitan, and choose them from among the best hunters and fighters. The local group expert on customary law is called Masikampo, and conducts all important meetinss of elders.
They believe in the spirits of nature and the supernaturals. They use intermediaries to these spirits called Babaylan.
Throughout the year, hunting and forging is pursued to complement the carbohydrate diet of the people. Most of the wi Id pigs are caught through spring traps.
They also indulge in sambior (barter) and dagang monetary exchange).
The trade is specifically for marine fish which the people of Candawaga provide in exchange for horticultural products of the Tau't Batu.
Dagans involves forest products like almaciga, rattan, etc. Satafeare inhabitants of the north-eastern portion of Pawalan Island, from the Babuyan river on the south to the vicinity of Malcampo on the north. There are approximately 9,135 Batak people (OSCC, 1.987). They are Malayo-Polynesian, with strong affinities to the Central Bisayan group of Philippine Languages. Most men are bilingual in both Batak and Jagbanua.
The basic social unit among the Tau't Batu of Singnapan is the ka-asawanor marriage group. This extends from the basic couple, man and woman, to the more complex arrangements of a compounded and extended family grouping, the ka-asawahan or household units are further grouped into larger associations called bulun-bulun which literally means gathering. These multi-household bands are physically bounded in the terms of habitation. Each bulun-bulun ordinarily occupies a single cave for residence, or a single house complex in the swidden area. One thing clear is that membership in a bulun-bulun is characterized by the system of sharing through different types of social and material exchanges.
The Tigwahanon
The Tigwa or Tigwahanons are scattered all over the Municipality of San Fernando in Bukidnon close to the border of Davao del Norte. The term Tigwahanen may have been derived from guwa (scattered) or from the Tigwa River where its banks and watersheds are inhabited by the Tigwahanon. To date, the Tigwa of Agusan del Norte, Bukidnon, Agusan del Sur, and Misamis Occidental Provinces number around 36,128.
The Tingguian
Tingguian is derived from the term Tingue, which means mountaineers. Tingguian, therefore, refers to "The People of the Mountains". Itneg is what the Tingguians are known in the Samtoy (llocano) dialect.
Tingguians have practically no government to speak of because Tingguian communities are relatively small and easily governable. They are peace-loving people. A semblance of authority exists within a council of elders wielding authority. These elders are known as Panglacayen. They rule collectively through a council. Tingguians have a common culture, custom, costumes, rituals, beliefs, idiosyncrasies, and ethnic values with only slight variations. They wear their hair in a tuft on the crown of the head. Itneg women wear necklaces, antique jewelry and tattoo. Their attires are multicolored, notably of the Batek kind. Physically, they are fine, and their noses are aquiline.
Itneg music is provided by musical instruments such as gangsa (gongs) and cymbals. Their dead are buried in an upright posture, mostly sitting positions. In marriage, the dowry is an inevitable, feature, and weddings are often characterized by lengthy and prolonged celebrations - the longer, the more prestigious. Cows, carabaos, goats, dogs, deer, wild boar, and chickens are slaughtered for feasting of the entire populace. Basi, local wine made from sugar cane, is also served for special occasions.
The religion of the Tingguians revolves around beliefs pertaining to creation and superstitions centering around the anito, an omnipotent being which exercises absolute control over humankind. Itnegs regard Bagatulayan as their supreme God, who has absolute control over the behavior of his subjects and punishes anyone who disregards his laws and commands. He is followed by Kadaklan, who enforces the decrees of Bagatulayan to the letter. The third ranked tingguian deity is kabonian, who is the benevolent one.
The various itneg groups have their own regular trademarks. The Banaos made their reputation in agriculture, deriving their livelihood from what the soil yields. The Banaos are in the municipalities of Daguioman and Malibcong. The Masadi-its are found in Manabo, Bucloc, Sallapadan and Boliney. Another sub-tribe of the Tingguians are the Maengs. They are the ranchers and they are found in the towns of Tubo, San Isidro, Villaviciosa and Malibcong. The Mgbacasare the game hunters and fishermen. They are found in Lacub and Malibcong. Being skilled craftsmen, the Balatocs are perhaps the Tingguian counterpart of the Ubo tribeof the Mindanao wilds. They carve mortars, grind stones, and cast bobs and similar implements. Binongans are consummate romantics and they are care¬free. They are fond of the guitars and musical instruments. Other sub-tribes are the Adasen which are found in Dolores, Lagangilang, Sallapadan, and Tineg. The Gubangs are found in Malibcong and Tayum. While the Danak is relatively a small group and are scattered throughout the province of Abra.
The Tingguian
Tingguian is derived from the term Tingue, which means mountaineers. Tingguian, therefore, refers to "The People of the Mountains". Itneg is what the Tingguians are known in the Samtoy (llocano) dialect.
Tingguians have practically no government to speak of because Tingguian communities are relatively small and easily governable. They are peace-loving people. A semblance of authority exists within a council of elders wielding authority. These elders are known as Panglacayen. They rule collectively through a council. Tingguians have a common culture, custom, costumes, rituals, beliefs, idiosyncrasies, and ethnic values with only slight variations. They wear their hair in a tuft on the crown of the head. Itneg women wear necklaces, antique jewelry and tattoo. Their attires are multicolored, notably of the Batek kind. Physically, they are fine, and their noses are aquiline.
Itneg music is provided by musical instruments such as gangsa (gongs) and cymbals. Their dead are buried in an upright posture, mostly sitting positions. In marriage, the dowry is an inevitable, feature, and weddings are often characterized by lengthy and prolonged celebrations - the longer, the more prestigious. Cows, carabaos, goats, dogs, deer, wild boar, and chickens are slaughtered for feasting of the entire populace. Basi, local wine made from sugar cane, is also served for special occasions.
The religion of the Tingguians revolves around beliefs pertaining to creation and superstitions centering around the anito, an omnipotent being which exercises absolute control over humankind. Itnegs regard Bagatulayan as their supreme God, who has absolute control over the behavior of his subjects and punishes anyone who disregards his laws and commands. He is followed by Kadaklan, who enforces the decrees of Bagatulayan to the letter. The third ranked tingguian deity is kabonian, who is the benevolent one.
The various itneg groups have their own regular trademarks. The Banaos made their reputation in agriculture, deriving their livelihood from what the soil yields. The Banaos are in the municipalities of Daguioman and Malibcong. The Masadi-its are found in Manabo, Bucloc, Sallapadan and Boliney. Another sub-tribe of the Tingguians are the Maengs. They are the ranchers and they are found in the towns of Tubo, San Isidro, Villaviciosa and Malibcong. The Mgbacasare the game hunters and fishermen. They are found in Lacub and Malibcong. Being skilled craftsmen, the Balatocs are perhaps the Tingguian counterpart of the Ubo tribeof the Mindanao wilds. They carve mortars, grind stones, and cast bobs and similar implements. Binongans are consummate romantics and they are care¬free. They are fond of the guitars and musical instruments. Other sub-tribes are the Adasen which are found in Dolores, Lagangilang, Sallapadan, and Tineg. The Gubangs are found in Malibcong and Tayum. While the Danak is relatively a small group and are scattered throughout the province of Abra.
The Tiruray
The Tirurays or Tedurays are another distinct ethno-linguistic group with clear proto-Malayan features. They are mostly found in Maguindanao and Sultan Kudarat provinces. The Tirurays have a solid structureas reflected by their socio-economic activities which include farming, hunting, fishing and basket weaving. While many have adapted to the political mainstream, a high number of their population still believe and practice their indigenous customs and rituals.
Despite the much acculturation, the Tirurays maintain a traditional culture of their own, characterized by by communal households, polygamy, and an indigenous moral-legal system. They are known for their craftsmanship in basket weaving in two-toned geometric designs.
The Lambiangans are said to be a sub-group belonging to the Tiruray community.
The Umayamnen
The Umayamnens live along the watershed of Umayamnen river in Bukidnon Province. The Umayamnens are known to be proud and reserved people, firm in their decisions, and forest experts. They generally possess the following physical features: fair complexion, medium heisht, and prominent cheekbones. The Umayamnons are engaged in beadworks for their body accessories such as the making of ginakit and inaboy(necklaces), suning(mens bags), and binuklad (bracelets). The Umayamnon tribe of Bukidnon has an approximate population of 101,906.
The Yakan
The word Yakan denotes "Dayak Origin". Various Yakan folk stories indicate that Yakans are descendants of both migrating Dayak from Northeast Borneo and Sama from Johore a long time ago.
Some Yakans today identify themselves as Sama-Yakan thus acknowledging their Sama and Dayak origin. The prominent person in each community of Yakan is the imam who combines both religious and socio-political leadership.
The Yakans are mostly found in the Interior of Basilan island. They speak a dialect of Sama language (Sinama or Siama) and are culturally influenced in some respect by the Tausug. They are landbound. They cultivate upland rice, corn, and other crops. They do not normally live in compact villages but build their houses just out of sight of each other, scattered among their plots of farmland.
The Yakans are believed to be the aborigines of Basilan. They live in the interior part of this island province. They have no compact village and their houses are scattered in the field.
The house of the Yakans is rectangular in form and has no special quarters for women. Both men and women including their guests gather in the same room or at the porch.
Farming is the chief means of livelihood among the Yakans and they usually cultivate upland rice.
The initiative for marriage in a Yakan community comes from the man. He has to pay the dowry as well as the expenses for the wedding ceremony. The marriage is solemnized by the imam.
The imam is the secular and religious head of the rans with the cooperation of three elders who sit with him in settling minor disputes.
The Yogad
The Yogad were at one time in the town of Diffun, Isabela. They now occupy Camarag, Echague, Angadanan, Santiago, and Jones, of the province of Isabela. Yogads are a part of the Christianized Kalingas of Western Isabela. They are predominantly of the Indonesian type with a slight mixture of Negrito and Chinese blood. They vary from reddish brown to dark brown in complexion, are round-headed, have straight black hair, dark brown eyes, and noses of medium breadth with low regular features. Like other Philippine peoples, they are practically beardless.
Their culture, like that of the other Christian groups of the lowlands is tinctured by Spanish civilization, although the people retain many of their primitive customs and beliefs. They practice the kaingin system. Their principal product is tobacco, while corn is their important staple food supply. Fond of hunting, the Sierra Madre Mountains are their hunting grounds. They also do considerable basket work and dwell in a structure of wood, like bamboo, or in a mountain cave with a thatched bamboo roof. The men wear skirt and trousers and the women camisa and skirt. Yogads are fond of music and dances.
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